Effectiveness of Cognitive Training in Older and Younger Adults

Change in the difference between the proportion of hits minus false alarms for a given level of the N-back task

The n-Back Task is a measure of working memory. The participant is sequentially shown a series of letters and is asked to indicate whether the current letter matches the letter presented "n" items before. The n levels range between 1- and 4-back. Each level of n-back has 17-19 letters, with 5 target letters.

Change in the proportion of correctly reported sequences in the Corsi Complex task

The Corsi Complex Task is a measure of working memory. The participant is sequentially shown a series of positions from 12 possible predefined spots on the screen. Between each position, the participants is also asked to categorize a stimulus between two categories based on color and shape. The participant's task is to report the sequence of positions in order. The length of sequence can vary between 2 and 10.

Change in the proportion of correctly reported number and letter sets in the Letter-Number task

The Letter-Number Sequence Task is a measure of working memory. In each trial, the participant is presented with a sequence of alternating letters and numbers, from 2 to 10 stimuli. Participants have to report the numbers in ascending order, and the letters in alphabetical order.

Change in the difference of response time and accuracy in switch trials minus non-switch trials in the Task Switching Task

The Task Switching task is a measure of cognitive flexibility. On each trial, participants view a letter and a digit. A cue tells the participant to either categorize the letter as a consonant or vowel or else categorize the digit as even or odd. Trials can be either "non-switch trials" - in which the participant is asked to perform the same task as on the previous trial - or "switch trials" - in which the participant is asked to perform the opposite task as on the previous trial. The participant will complete 48 trials. A "switch cost" is calculated by subtracting the average response time for switch trials from the average response time for non-switch trials.

Big-5-Inventory 10-item version (BFI-10) Score

Individual differences in personality moderating the potential link between expectations and performance on the battery of cognitive tasks. BFI-10 measures the individuals' personality traits: conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness to experience, and extraversion. The total possible range of scores is from 1-5 for each personality traits, where higher scores indicate higher expression of this personality trait.

Behavioral Inhibition/Activation System (BIS/BAS) Score

Individual differences in reward sensitiveness moderating the potential link between expectations and performance on the battery of cognitive tasks. BIS/BAS measures the sensitivity to reward through four components, one inhibition component (punishment sensitivity) and three activation components (fun seeking, reward responsiveness, and drive). The total possible range of scores is from 1-4, where higher scores indicate higher expression of each dimension of the questionnaire.

Grit and Conscientiousness Score

Individual differences in grit and conscientiousness moderating the potential link between expectations and performance on the battery of cognitive tasks. Grit and Consciousness measures the tendency to sustain effort toward long-term goals. The total possible range of scores is from 1-5, where higher scores indicate higher levels of grit and conscientiousness.

Meta-Cognition Score

Individual differences in meta-cognitive skills moderating the potential link between expectations and performance on the battery of cognitive tasks. Meta-Cognition measures the ability to understand one's own abilities, strengths, and weaknesses. The total possible range of scores is from 1-5, where higher scores indicate higher meta-cognitive skills.