This study aims to explore the relationship between health-related physical fitness and behavioural and electrophysiological aspects of cool and hot executive function in older adults through a year prospective study design. The main questions it aims to answer whether changes in health-related physical fitness will positively predict changes in behavioural and electrophysiological aspects of cool and hot executive functions in older adults. The participants will be asked to complete pre-test, a one-year observation period, and post-test. Both pre- and post-tests will measure health-related physical fitness, executive function, and various demographic variables and covariates. Health-related physical fitness assessments include cardiorespiratory endurance (YMCA submaximal cycle test), muscular strength (grip strength, chest press, and leg press), muscular endurance (30-second chair stand, 30-second bicep curl), flexibility (range of motion), and balance (Balance Error Scoring System). Executive function will be measured using the Stroop test and emotional Stroop test, with concurrent EEG recording of brain activity. Demographic variables and covariates include sex, age, years of education, annual income, Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) Taiwan short form, World Health Organisation Quality of Life Brief Assessment (WHOQOL-BREF) Taiwan version, Geriatric Depression Scale, Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE), digit span tests, and step count recorded by mobile phones or watches over the previous month, resting heart rate, and resting blood pressure. No interventions will be conducted during the one-year observation period, maintaining participants' normal daily living conditions.
Age 65 or above.
Able to engage in fitness testing.
Normal vision or corrected-to-normal vision.
Suffering from cardiopulmonary-related diseases.
Suffering from cognitive, neurological or psychiatric disorders (e.g., dementia, Parkinson's disease, epilepsy, depression, schizophrenia, etc.).
Suffering from infectious diseases (e.g., hepatitis, human immunodeficiency virus or Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease).
Having a history of drug or alcohol abuse.
Study population are older adults aged 65 or above.
Cohort
Prospective
observation alone
Other interventionNo interventions will be conducted during the one-year observation period, maintaining participants' normal daily living conditions.
Health-related physical fitness (cardiorespiratory endurance)
Cardiorespiratory endurance was assessed using the YMCA Submaximal Cycle Ergometer Test. The protocol comprised four 3-minute stages at 50 rpm, beginning with a 25W workload in stage one. Stage two workload was determined by steady-state heart rate (HR) achieved during the final two minutes of stage one (tolerance ±5 beats/min): \<80 beats/min = 125W; 80-89 beats/min = 100W; 90-100 beats/min = 75W; \>100 beats/min = 50W. Stages three and four increased workload by 25W increments, targeting two consecutive steady-state HRs between 110 beats/min and 85% HRmax. Stage duration was extended by one-minute intervals when steady-state criteria were not met (HR variation \>5 beats/min or \<110 beats/min during final two minutes). Peak VO₂ was estimated using established formulae.
Health-related physical fitness (muscular strength)
Muscular strength was assessed by handgrip strength, chest press, and leg press. Hand grip strength was assessed using a digital hand dynamometer. Chest and leg press was assessed using chest and leg press machines, respectively, following a standardised four-stage protocol. Participants initially performed 10-12 repetitions at minimal resistance for familiarisation and warm-up. Subsequently, they completed 5-10 repetitions with progressively increasing resistance (5-10% increments for upper body; 10-20% for lower body), with 3-5 minute rest intervals between attempts. This process continued until participants could perform fewer than five repetitions. The final successfully completed workload served as the basis for one-repetition maximum (1-RM) estimation using established conversion tables.
Health-related physical fitness (muscular endurance)
Muscular endurance was assessed using the 30-second bicep curl and 30-second chair stand from the Senior Fitness Test. The 30-second bicep curl required participants to sit upright on the chair edge, favouring their dominant side, with feet flat on the ground. Using a handshake grip, they held a dumbbell (5 pounds for females, 8 pounds for males) in their dominant hand, with the arm initially hanging straight down beside the chair. Complete arm flexion and extension constituted one repetition, with participants instructed to perform maximal repetitions within 30 seconds. The 30-second chair stand required participants to sit centrally with backs straight, feet flat on the ground, and arms crossed over their chests. They performed maximal repetitions of standing up and sitting down within 30 seconds. The total number of repetitions in each test served as the respective muscular endurance indicator.
Health-related physical fitness (flexibility)
Flexibility was assessed using range of motion measurements obtained with a joint goniometer. The goniometer's fulcrum was positioned at the centre of the target joint, with arms aligned to the bony landmarks of the proximal and distal segments. The resulting angular measurement represented the joint's range of motion.
Demographic questionnaire
Demographic questionnaire include sex, age, years of education, and step count recorded by mobile phones or watches over the previous month.
Sleep quality (Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index, PSQI)
Sleep quality was assessed using the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), a validated self-report questionnaire comprising 19 items that evaluate sleep patterns over the preceding month. The instrument generates seven component scores: subjective sleep quality, sleep latency, sleep duration, sleep efficiency, sleep disturbances, sleep medication use, and daytime dysfunction. Each component is scored from 0 to 3, yielding a global score ranging from 0 to 21. Scores ≤5 indicate good sleep quality, whilst scores \>5 suggest poor sleep quality, with higher values reflecting greater sleep impairment.
Physical activity (Taiwan version of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire, IPAQ)
Physical activity was assessed using the Taiwan version of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ). This seven-item instrument measures metabolic equivalents (METs) across work, household, leisure, and sedentary activities over a seven-day period, expressed in kcal/kg/min. Activities are categorised as vigorous, moderate, and light intensity (walking), alongside sedentary behaviour, with frequency (days/week) and duration (minutes/session) recorded for each intensity level.
Quality of life (Taiwan version of World Health Organisation Quality of Life Brief Assessment, WHOQOL-BREF)
Quality of life was assessed using the Taiwan version of the World Health Organization Quality of Life Questionnaire-Brief Form (WHOQOL-BREF), a validated 24-item instrument utilising a five-point Likert scale. Participants evaluated their experiences and perceptions over the preceding two weeks across four domains: physical health, psychological health, social relationships, and environmental factors. Two additional items assessed overall quality of life and general health satisfaction. This instrument provides comprehensive multidimensional assessment suitable for clinical and research applications.
Click on the lead sponsor to view all of their trials.
